Essay Sample on Russian Revolution

Essay Sample on Russian Revolution In 1900 Russia was the last remaining absolute autocracy out of the great powers of Europe. Approximately eighty four per cent of Russians were peasants, lead by an over privileged upper class who had enslaved them for centuries. There existed a total lack of understanding or sympathy between the workers/peasants and their ruling class, who cared little about their responsibility and obligation to care for the welfare of their people. By the turn of the century many voices emerged in hope to see reforms of their backward nation. For many years there had been desire for reform, but not until the layer upon layer of revolutionary pressure in the precondition phase did it blatantly warn of change, which Tsar Nicholas 2nd attempted to ignore and oppress. However, his oppression only fueled the fire of revolutionary minds and hearts, who despite superficial concessions by the Tsar in 1905 strived to see a permanent transformation of their great yet backward nation. From the period 1900-19 17 the events such as Bloody Sunday, the great strikes, famines and war would confront and enchant the Russian people and eventually leaders to revolution and an end to a 300 year dynasty. The Tsar Nicholas the 2nd was a man who’s ignorance of his people’s hardships combined with his resistance to any political reform tragically led to his abdication and eventual assassination. He and all those loyal to him believed that he had a divine right from God to be the absolute ruler of Russia, therefore any attempt to undermine his power such as the formation of a constitutional monarchy was believed to be against the will of God. Nicholas 2nd was greatly out of touch with his people, and only received censored reports from the ministers he personally appointed. The many strikes from 1899 to 1903 were crushed with the force of his army, forbidding the population to have any alternate political voice. The peaceful protest of January 1905 lead by father Giorgi Gapon, was responded to with the brutal forces which had oppressed the majority of the Russian people for centuries. Any alternate political voice was outlawed, resulting in the execution, imprisonment or ex ile of identified revolutionaries. Core to the Tsar’s belief was absolute power, or none, and it was this resilience which would lead to his abdication, his inability to accept and compromise power over the Russian people whom he had little in common. The upper class of Russian society had little to complain about in the beginning of the century, the many parties, picnics and concerts gave them little to complain about. Controlling most of the wealth of Russia, the upper-class nobles had no desire for change to their luxurious and decadent lifestyle. They had little will to help the starving and toiling masses, and chose to merely accept that it was God’s intention for those to be poor. The wealthy were so out of touch with the majority of Russian society that they did not at first take seriously the signs of revolution around them; the many emerging political parties, the growing amount of strikes and assassinations, and the increasing incidences of violence in the countryside. This ruling class supported the autocracy and had no intention to change Russia in the preconditions to the revolution. Russia’s middle class had varying views upon the leadership of their country. The rich middle class had a healthy and relatively easy lifestyle and therefore little desire for change. However it was the middle class which fostered the intelligentsia who were the minds that fueled the revolution. As the working and peasant classes were without education, it was the well educated yet not overtly wealthy section of the middle class who developed revolutionary ideas, writings and underground political discussions. The Liberal party was supported by the educated and middle classes, which believed that Russia should become a constitutional monarchy with free democratic elections and that people should be granted civil liberties such as freedom of speech, association and worship. This group of people would in 1905 form the party named the Cadets. In addition the â€Å"father† of the revolution, Lenin, was raised in a middle class family with an excellent education at primary, secondary and tertiary level. The middle class who supported change provided the educated few who would provide leadership to the dissatisfied masses. The Russian Orthodox Church created and supported the core belief that the Tsar was the only fit ruler of Russia. The power of the church, like it had been for centuries in many other countries, taught its followers to accept hardship, and believe that it was always God’s intention. It encouraged the people to believe that the Tsar was chosen by God to rule and protect them, and mislead them to believe that he had their best interests at mind. However, the people eventually realized that their â€Å"little father† had no interest in their welfare, and hence revolutionary groups condemned religion and the Orthodox Church which made people accept their unjustifiable hardships. There also existed supporters outside of Russia who had an opinion of the ruling of Russia, especially during the Second World War. Allies of Russia, France and Britain, believed that any revolution in Russia during the First World War would lead to their retreat from the war and henceforth allow Germany and its allies to concentrate its army on the western front. Without Russia in the war its Allies would be in great vulnerability to the forces of Germany and Austria Hungary, giving them every reason to resist change until revolution inevitably broke out. It was Russia’s enemy Germany who provided a sealed train through the battlefields in 1917, containing approximately 30 revolutionaries. One of these was Lenin. It was in Germany’s best interests that they send people to Russia who would hopefully stir it up, as a revolution at the time would almost grant them victors. The peasantry of Russia from 1860 had seen little real change in their living and working conditions, allowing continuous discontent due to their economic hardships and a harsh unsympathizing leader. Despite freedom from serfdom and the availability of government loans to buy land in 1861, they were in reality still enslaved by the wealthy landowners to whom they were indebted. In addition to this crushing debt, the peasantry would still use backward, inefficient agricultural methods using small strips of land. There was hardly enough land in comparison to the amount of peasants and mouths to feed, resulting in widespread famine. The government charged incredibly heavy taxes on grain and other produce, as well as every day items such as wheat and alcohol. There were poor harvests in 1900 and 1902 creating great famines and mass starvation in the country side. Such poor conditions and a series of harsh seasons led to outbreaks of violence against local landlords, burning their houses and seizing land for themselves. In reality, the uneducated masses of peasants would most probably have support a revolution which would allow them to own their own land without debts and fair taxes. The complaints of the peasants remained unheard by the leaders until certain political parties would rally to them in order to gain mass support for their causes. The assassinations of landlords and taking over of land did little in the long run other than to show signs of discontent; it was not until they could be organized and united by a strong leader would their complaints be listened to. The Stolypin reforms resulted in more discontent as the most efficient peasants, which consisted of only around 15%, were allowed to buy land of those who were less enterprising, however this resulted in many losing their land without anything to feed their families on. Some would go to the cities and join the working class; others would roam the country side for work. Nevertheless, only a small percentage of peasantry would see an improvement in their living conditions upon the outbreak of the First World War, resulting in the increased pressure for revolution. The working class of the relatively new industrial centers went through waves of discontent from 1900 to the offset of the revolution. Terribly poor working, sanitary and living conditions caused the workers to itch for reform, firstly by means of peaceful protest, then repeated strikes and acts of violence. After 1900, workers wages rose little, especially in comparison to inflation. In 1902 an industrial slump caused thousands of workers to lose their jobs. This created conditions for an outbreak of strikes, acts of violence and assassinations. The low wages, increasing food prices and declining working conditions only fuelled the industrial unrest which was crushed by the Tsar’s forces, killing thousands of protesting workers. By 1917 there had been formed many parties which initially developed in the underground. The beliefs of Populism had influenced the socialist revolutionaries whose primary motivation for reform was the program of the â€Å"communization of the land†, where peasant life would be centered on the village, freed from the oppression of rural master, civil and personal liberties would be granted and everybody would have a right to education. Like most other revolutionary parties, they believed in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime and its replacement with a democratic, representative government. The socialist revolutionaries were mostly supported by the peasants, hence the occasional referral to them as the â€Å"Peasant’s Party†. The Social Democratic Workers Party closely followed Marxist principles, believing that the road to a communist revolution was through different phases, including a intermediate capitalist stage. They believed that the working class would eventually rise up against their oppressive capitalist employers (the dictatorship of the proletariat), and create a system where there would be no rankings and all citizens would be treated equally no matter what their occupation would be. At the congress of this party in 1903 there were recognized two different groups which would split the party. The Bolsheviks, or majority, headed by Lenin, believed that the masses should be led by and elite party to which membership should be exclusive. In contrast, the Mensheviks, or minority led by Martov, believed that all people should be able to become members of the party. This main ideological difference separated the party at the only time when Lenin’s fraction would actually be in majority. Even when sent to prison and exiled to Siberia for being a revolutionary, this vivacious leader would still write about the collapse of the regime which killed his older brother and which was still oppressing him. Lenin’s beliefs became too extreme for many, as he specifically believed in the violent and bloody overthrow of the autocracy, and even challenged Marxism by preferring to rush through the supposedly lengthily capitalist phase of a country’s development into a communist state. He stressed the importance of the correct time to ignite revolution, and it was upon his return to Russia in 1917 that he knew the starved, war-torn and disillusioned country would be at boiling point in readiness to change. Until 1917 the Russian armed forces had suffered a series of humiliating military defeats leading to outbreaks of mutiny and abandonment. The Russo-Japanese war saw the sound defeat of Russia’s aspirations to establish a naval base in Korea and Port Arthur. The sailors of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in 1905 and the losses of Russia’s Baltic Fleet and Far Eastern Army were demoralizing and deplorable. In 1914 the initial enthusiasm for Russia’s participation in the First World War quickly waned. The decisive defeats of the poorly organized Russian army against the Germans at Tannenberh and the Masurian lakes killed, wounded or took prisoner 8 million soldiers by 1917. Desertions began to be commonplace, the incompetent and ineffective officers allowed men to perish without ammunition or weapons, in the freezing cold without adequate weather protection. Upon return to their home towns or cities, the key force to change or its resistance was willing to support those revolutionaries who would end the war and slaughter of their comrades. 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Causes of Texas Independence

Causes of Texas Independence Why did Texas want independence from Mexico? On October 2, 1835, rebellious Texans took shots at Mexican soldiers in the town of Gonzales. It was barely a skirmish, as the Mexicans left the battlefield without attempting to engage the Texans, but nevertheless the Battle of Gonzales is considered the first engagement of what would become Texas War of Independence from Mexico. The battle, however, was only the start of the actual fighting: tensions had been high for years between the Americans who had come to settle Texas and the Mexican authorities. Texas formally declared independence in March of 1836: there were many reasons why they did so. 1. The Settlers Were Culturally American, Not Mexican Mexico only became a nation in 1821, after winning independence from Spain. At first, Mexico encouraged Americans to settle Texas. They were given land that no Mexicans had yet laid claim to. These Americans became Mexican citizens and were supposed to learn Spanish and convert to Catholicism. They never really became Mexican, however: they kept their language and ways and culturally had more in common with the people of the USA than with Mexico. These cultural ties with the USA made the settlers identify more with the USA than Mexico and made independence (or US statehood) more attractive. 2. The Slavery Issue Most of the American settlers in Mexico were from southern states, where slavery was still legal. They even brought their slaves with them. Because slavery was illegal in Mexico, these settlers made their slaves sign agreements giving them the status of indentured servants – essentially slavery by another name. The Mexican authorities grudgingly went along with it, but the issue occasionally flared up, especially when slaves ran off. By the 1830s, many settlers were afraid that the Mexicans would take their slaves away: this made them favor independence. 3. The Abolishment of the 1824 Constitution One of Mexico’s first constitutions was written in 1824, which was about the time that the first settlers arrived in Texas. This constitution was heavily weighted in favor of states’ rights (as opposed to federal control). It allowed the Texans great freedom to rule themselves as they saw fit. This constitution was overturned in favor of another that gave the federal government more control, and many Texans were outraged (many Mexicans in other parts of Mexico were, too). Reinstatement of the 1824 constitution became a rallying cry in Texas before the fighting broke out. 4. Chaos in Mexico City Mexico suffered great growing pains as a young nation in the years after independence. In the capital, liberals and conservatives fought it out in the legislature (and occasionally in the streets) over issues such as states rights and the separation (or not) of church and state. Presidents and leaders came and went. The most powerful man in Mexico was Antonio Là ³pez de Santa Anna. He was president several times, but he was a notorious flip-flopper, generally favoring liberalism or conservatism as it fit his needs. These problems made it impossible for Texans to solve their differences with the central government in any lasting way: new governments often reversed decisions made by previous ones. 5. Economic Ties with the USA Texas was separated from most of Mexico by large swaths of desert with little in the way of roads. For those Texans who produced export crops, such as cotton, it was far easier to send their goods downstream to the coast, ship it to a nearby city like New Orleans and sell them there. Selling their goods in Mexican ports was nearly prohibitively hard. Texas produced a lot of cotton and other goods, and the resulting economic ties with the southern US hastened its departure from Mexico. 6. Texas Was Part of the State of Coahuila y Texas: Texas was not a state in the United States of Mexico,  it was half of the state of Coahuila y Texas. From the beginning, the American settlers (and many of the Mexican Tejanos as well) wanted statehood for Texas, as the state capital was far away and difficult to reach. In the 1830s, the Texans would occasionally have meetings and make demands of the Mexican government: many of these demands were met, but their petition for separate statehood was always denied. 7. The Americans Outnumbered the Tejanos In the 1820s and 1830s, Americans were desperate for land, and often settled in dangerous frontier territories if land was available. Texas has some great land for farming and ranching and when it was opened up, many went there as fast as they could. Mexicans, however, never wanted to go there. To them, Texas was a remote, undesirable region. The soldiers stationed there were usually convicts: when the Mexican government offered to relocate citizens there, no one took them up on it. The native Tejanos, or native-born Texas Mexicans, were few in number and by 1834 the Americans outnumbered them by as many as four-to-one. 8​.  Manifest Destiny Many Americans believed that Texas, as well as other parts of Mexico, should belong to the USA. They felt that the USA should extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and that any Mexicans or Indians in between should be kicked out to make way for the rightful owners. This belief was called Manifest Destiny. By 1830, the USA had taken Florida from the Spanish and the central part of the nation from the French (via the Louisiana Purchase). Political leaders such as Andrew Jackson officially disowned rebel actions in Texas but covertly encouraged Texas settlers to rebel, giving tacit approval of their deeds. The Path to Texas Independence Mexicans were keenly aware of the possibility of Texas splitting off to become a state of the USA or an independent nation. Manuel de Mier y Tern, a respected Mexican military officer, was sent to Texas to make a report on what he saw. He gave a report in 1829 in which he reported the large number of legal and illegal immigrants into Texas. He recommended that Mexico increase its military presence in Texas, outlaw any further immigration from the USA and move large numbers of Mexican settlers into the area. In 1830, Mexico passed a measure to follow Terns suggestions, sending additional troops and cutting off further immigration. But it was too little, too late, and all the new resolution accomplished was to anger those settlers already in Texas and hasten the independence movement. There were many Americans who immigrated to Texas with the intention of being good citizens of Mexico. The best example is Stephen F. Austin. Austin managed the most ambitious of the settlement projects and insisted his colonists adhere to the laws of Mexico. In the end, however, the differences between the Texans and the Mexicans were too great. Austin himself changed sides and supported independence after years of fruitless wrangling with the Mexican bureaucracy and about a year in a Mexican prison for supporting Texas statehood a little too vigorously. Alienating men like Austin was the worst thing Mexico could have done: when even Austin picked up a rifle in 1835, there was no going back. On October 2, 1835, the first shots were fired in the town of Gonzales. After the Texans captured San Antonio, General Santa Anna marched north with a massive army. They overran the defenders at the Battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. The Texas legislature had officially declared independence a few days before. On April 21, 1835, the Mexicans were crushed at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured, essentially sealing Texas independence. Although Mexico would try several times in the next few years to reclaim Texas, it joined the USA in 1845. Sources Brands, H.W. Lone Star Nation: the Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence. New York: Anchor Books, 2004. Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War With the United States. Hill and Wang, 2007, New York.

Balance in the Administration of Justice and Security Integrative Research Paper

Balance in the Administration of Justice and Security Integrative - Research Paper Example In essence, due to the dire situation in the organization of justice a lot of stigma is exerted on criminals and they are separated from ordinary inhabitants thus denying them their fundamental rights. Additionally, criminals are exposed to cruel conditions and given very barbaric penalties like capital punishment. However, the progression of evenhandedness and protection has brought good tidings for offenders and general residents in the sense that it provides for a tight balancing act linking justice and security. Such a concept guarantees the equal rights of all in society and creates a viable ambience for the achievement of justice. Much of the development of security and justice occurred in the course of the 21st century mostly due to the novel technology along with regulations enabling nations to create fresh types of retributions in the process of advancing justice. The outcomes of this evolution are evident as more liberties have been included in constitutions with the endeav or of establishing balance. The ratification of constitution by the authority has been engineered by the need to offer justice along with security to its citizens. A number of parameters pertain to the legal atmosphere where constitution as well as justice thrives. These parameters comprise of authority, punitive measures, mutual understanding in addition to fairness. Moreover, there are matters that pertain to the liberties of citizens along with security and the sustenance of order (Barreneche, 2006). They comprise of intrusion with liberties of as enshrined in the law. Dynamics like mass media along with technology have facilitated the delivery of security and justice to the nation. There has been an unprecedented evolution of fairness with safety in the 21st century facilitated by the establishment of novel policies to boost security in the country along with the guarantee of justice. As a result, majority of the nations have enacted legislations that conceptualize the manner in which matters of crime are dealt with. Such stipulations have been central in the quest for impartiality in addition to safety in the nation making it possible to establish a balance between the two primary parameters. Therefore, the evolution of security along with justice has been good news not only to the criminal justice system but also to the twin dynamics of security and justice which occupy a central position in the vast criminal justice system. Subsequently, surveillance has been beefed up to address activities of crime in several nations. A perfect example is the ratification of an anti terror act by America to assist in thwarting instances of crime. The primary intention of the legislation is the guarantee of security to the country’s citizens (Kelly et al, 2004). Among the many dynamics of the law include the guarantee of safety via security measures at airports and boundaries and seizure among others. The central pillar is the noninterference with the rights and liberties of citizens in the process of maintaining security. Therefore, the process of providing security and guaranteeing order should not in any way compromise the liberties and freedoms of citizens. As a result, even offenders have their rights which must not be denied. Law enforcement officers and other security agents are supposed to esteem the liberties of citizens as exemplified in the constitution. Every operation and activity must be guided by the law. However,

Argument essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Argument - Essay Example Censorship discourages economic growth by hindering business development; this has a vast negative impact. This is evident when considering the number of the movies that are being banned or scrapped off due to the sole decision of an individual that the contents of the movies are said to be unfit for public viewing. This is not in order in spite of the fact that individuals may at times be dismissive of it terming it as protection (Reichman 66). The role of film classification officers is thus put into question as it is unclear why a committee is left to determine what films are watchable and which are not despite the clear fact that it is the regulators who place the age restrictions quite higher than they should actually, creating a negative impact on the business personalities. Information is power and a population that is empowered is better off than that which is denied information. This impact was seen in Ireland for example in the year 2000 on the film called, ‘The cider house rules,’ a movie which was given an over 18 certificate proclaiming that the information that it presented on abortion and incest was wrong. In issuing such restrictions, they argue that any individual who wants to have access to such a film must first possess an idea of the film contents and the message passed (Caso 172). This may be correct but the younger population should access the message communicated by the film especially with the onset of technological growth coupled with the fact that technology is and will continue to be a major pillar of economic growth. Therefore, many businesses are adversely affected when restrictions in terms of laws and regulations are put in place in such an environment (Lederer and Richard 312). In addition, censorship denies individuals their freedom of expression and access to information, since it is beneficial for one to be able to make well-informed decisions, but it is discouraging when some sectors within the society influence, and place restrictions on individuals to shape the values of the society members in terms of what they should do or not do. It is only possible to make clear and well-informed decisions when the individuals have all the necessary information to make such decisions. This is what censorship denies the population, the chance to make their own independent and well-informed choices by influencing their decisions and choices in a direction of their preference (Lederer and Richard 72). However, the fact that people should be allowed to make their own decisions does not mean the same people will invest their efforts in acts that would go against the norms of the society. The regulations placed have resulted into situations whereby individuals are not able to make critical decisions like those that involve the choice of curriculums in schools. This inability is attributed to inappropriate information that has made it extremely difficult for the school going personalities to be in the positi on of choosing extra curriculum activities and relevant collegial groups than they were able to before. Therefore, censorship should be discouraged since it even cuts

Anticipatory Grief Essays -- Psychology

Grief is a universal reaction experienced by all of us at some time in our lives. The capacity that makes each of us capable of warm, satisfying relationships also leaves us vulnerable to sadness, despair, and grief when such relationships are disrupted (Carr, 1969). Regardless of the actual relationship that might have existed prior to the death, we have the tendency to idealize the relationship once death has occurred and we expect expressions of normal grief. Unfortunately, "normal grief' is what society expects, but the needs of the individual prerequisites putting a label on grief. Because society influences our behavior through the secondary reinforcement of social approval during this time, we are not looking at the primary reinforcer of survival. The needs of each individual can only be understood in the light of knowledge of his/her own developmental background and the particular conflicts being mobilized, and what defenses are being used against these (Maddison & Raphael, 1 972). This same developmental background is important in another aspect of death called anticipatory grief. The term anticipatory grief was first used by Lindemann in 1944 to " ... denote a reaction to separation and the possibility of death rather than the inevitability of death" (Bourke, 1984). Over the years there has been much discussion and research has been done on anticipatory grief. But to this point research evidence is inconsistent. All research points to the fact that anticipated losses that face the individual are very real. "Their emotional investment in the individual's presence, the satisfactions and warmth that they have received through their attachment to her or him, are soon to be ended"(Kalish, 1977). Since Lindemann (... ... management of acute grief. American Journal of Psychiatry, 101, 141-148. Maddison, D. C. & Raphael, B. (1972). The family of the dying patient. In B. Schoenberg, A. Carr, A. Kutscher, D. Peretz, & I. Goldberg, (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of terminal care (pp. 185-200). New York: Columbia Univ. Press. Marples, M. (1986). Helping family members cope with a senile relative. Social Casework: The Journal of Contemporary Social Work, 67, 490-498. Osterweis, M., Solomon, F., & Green, M. (1984). Bereavement: Reactions, consequences, and care. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Rando, T. A. (1988). Anticipatory grief: The term is a misnomer but the phenomenon exits. Journal of Palliative Care, 4, 70-73. Rando, T. A. (1989). Anticipatory grief. In R. Kastenbaum & B. K. Kastenbaum (Eds.), Encyclopedia of death (12-15). Phoenix: The Oryx Press.

Final Assignment : Sugar-Sweetened Beverages

Francesca Mancini Prof. Nakamoto October 23, 2012 Final Assignment  : Sugar-Sweetened Beverages The article â€Å"A Randomized Trial of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Adolescent Body Weight†(2012) aims at examining the causal relationship between the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and obesity among adolescents. The research for this article is a follow up of a previous pilot study that has been conducted on a period of six months involving normal weight, overweight, and obese adolescents who consumed sugar sweetened beverages regularly.Results showed that there was a significant decrease of body weight and body mass index (BMI) among the overweight and obese adolescents. Due to this result, a further study has been designed to reanalyze the data from the pilot study and further explain the effects of sugar-sweetened beverages. The research method used was a random sample of 224 adolescents that are obese or overweight who consumed at least one serving of sugar-sweet ened beverages or fruit juice per day. Participants were randomly assigned to a control group or an experimental group for two years; where one year would be an intervention and the second year a follow up.Since the participants are young, the parents provided a written consent and the participants a written assent. The multicomponent intervention aimed to reduce the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages for one year in the experimental group by providing access to home delivery of non-caloric beverages. Motivational telephone calls with parents were conducted on a monthly basis and three check-in visits with participants. The control group on the other hand received $50 supermarket gift cards to participants at four to eight months as a retention strategy but did not instruct them on what to purchase with the cards.It is important to note that the study did not focus attention to other diet methods or physical activity, however, they have included the daily physical activity lev el and the amount of television watched daily. The measures for his study: * Demographics: sex, race, date of birth, ethnic group, parents level of education, and total annual household income. * Physical activity: in collaboration with the persons metabolic equivalence. * Television viewing: hours per day. * Dietary intake: includes three main items. 1) beverages per servings per day: a-sugar-sweetened, b-fruit juices, c-artificially sweetened, d- unsweetened. ) energy intake per calorie per day: a-total, b-sugar-sweetened beverages, c-fruit juices. 3)Sugar grams per day. * Weight and height: in kilograms and centimeters (these are used to compute the BMI * BMI as an outcome over the two years: used the bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) to calculate body fat. * Adverse events: any symptom or medical attention that was reported during the study. Hypothesis: One single hypothesis was formulated for this study. They hypothesized that the experimental group would gain weight at a slower rate than the control group.Results: When testing the covariates for interaction, Hispanic ethnic group is found to be the only modifier for group differences, as they have portrayed the most change; causing the study to add an interaction term for the ethnic group. At baseline, regarding the demographics or other variables, there were no differences between the experimental and the control groups. In terms of dietary intake at year one, change in consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages was different between the control and the experimental groups; declining almost to zero for the experimental.Also meaning that the experimental group consumed more artificially or un-sweetened beverages. At year two, same results remained however, the intake of artificially sweetened beverages did not differ between the groups. Also, sugar intake in both years was less for the experimental group. In terms of the outcomes, at year one the net BMI was significant, but not in year two. When suga r was added to the BMI measure there was no longer a significance. Body fat was not significant among the groups. Although, there was no intervention done for physical activity, the experimental group watched less television.In terms of ethnic group, among Hispanics in the two years, there was significant effect on the BMI, as well as in the change of body weight. The effects of Hispanic youth was strong compared to the non-Hispanics. Discussion: The results show a support of the hypothesis; the experimental group did gain weight but at a slower rate than the control group. These are shown in the results of the overall BMI computed and the overall weight of the participants. Most of the difference is due to the Hispanic participants, as they are the ones that showed to have the most effect out of the intervention.Even if the overall study did support the hypothesis in quest, there are many discussion points towards the results and the overall study: * The unexpected finding that the Hispanics are the ones that have showed the most dominant findings, causing the major change in BMI over two years, is one that should be studied more. It is interesting that they started out with a sample that includes diversity, however, if the Hispanics hadn’t been part, the hypothesis wouldn’t have been supported.There is a reason to why the Hispanics have been affected this much, it would be interesting as they have stated, to look more into the physiology and in generic susceptibility. * During the second year, when the intervention was not playing a critical role, there was an effect but not as powerful. The level of consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and juice had increased a bit and this shows that the intervention was not that efficient as with time this will increase. It is clear that the results of the study were conducted and everything they needed to establish was accomplished, though, the aim is to keep that behavior going.There should have been a stronger message that could be captured by the participants. * They did not focus on any other diet activity or exercise because their main focus was to check the effect of the sugar-sweetened beverages and non-caloric beverages; wanting to leave everything constant. However, (explaining on a personal level) when people are in an intervention, there is some kind of psychological factor that works to lead to the belief that they are on a certain form of diet; causing them to indirectly adjust other things in heir lifestyle (although in the results shown, people have gained weight overall, but it still makes a small difference). If we look closely at the results in year one, the participants technically did decrease their overall weight because as the height increased, it causes a slight change to the weight, therefore leading to an increase in BMI; whereas in year two, one would think that there would be same constant increase (as the increase in height did not differ much) however, participants gained more than the previous year.Which leads to the previous point that shows that the intervention was not efficient enough to stay through the follow up, the participants did not continue the behavior change. * The measure of the time spent watching television daily is also a critical factor that was not used much, as it was clearly stated that they were not examining the effect of physical activity or anything else; it was just an overall view. Results stated that the experimental group did spend less hours watching television; maybe it is relevant to the key point stated earlier about the unconscious change in lifestyle. â€Å"Missing values for BMI were imputed by assessing that the participants’ BMI z score was unchanged from baseline†(p. 3). Including manipulated data to the results would have an effect on the overall study, the missing information of any participant should just be omitted, as well as the participant itself. * There was no intera ction with the parents level of education and the total household income, probably useful to show the differences among social classes; as the study is one of a diverse sample, including differences in all characteristics. * Adverse events were included, however, did not have much significance with the study.. n this study of reduced sugar-sweetened beverages, there are not side effects that could lead to any severe injury. Probably it was necessary to cover everything needed, maybe during a severe injury, the interventions was not followed or the participant have gained or lost weight because of the incident. Impact of paper on intervention: Sugar-sweetened beverages has an effect on the increase of body weight, this was evaluated in the article through an intervention that included the provision of non-caloric beverages to check the difference in weight gain among the two groups of study (experimental and control).There were some issues that the article â€Å"A Randomized Trial o f Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Adolescent Body Weight†(2012) does not answer; these are issues that relate to the messages sent out. To start by saying, an intervention in medical terms is â€Å"any measure whose purpose is to improve health or alter the course of disease† (Medical Dictionary). In this paper, the intervention aimed at the provision of non-caloric beverages aimed at reducing the consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, however, the message was not strong enough.It was a trial period of one year to check if sugar sweetened beverages did cause a gain in weight, and whether substituting these with non-caloric beverages would make a difference at a slower pace, and it most certainly did. The researchers did not identify to the participants and their parents what promotes or protects weight gain; they should communicate the effects of these sugar-sweetened beverages, the idea behind using non-caloric beverages, the impact it has on the body, and the aim of modifying the behavior to adjust obesity problems.The telephone calls every month did not include information, just checking up with parents of child’s consumption. Overall the paper did provide the non-caloric beverages, however, it did not communicate the impact of these beverages body weight. Study proposal: To recap, the study in the article provided emphasized on difference in weight gain over a period of two years. One year was including the intervention where non-caloric beverages were provided, and the other year was a follow up, with no intervention.The research however, did not focus on any details about the drinks itself or the amount consumed per day, except that it was non-caloric and â€Å"diet† beverages. A proposed study that includes different variables of beverage intake is going to be explained shortly. The aim is to review the research and suggest additional variables and measurements that are going to be tested and therefore, predict the results. T he research proposed is derived from the study of the article â€Å"Reduction in Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages is associated with weight loss: The Premier Trial† (2009) by Chen, Appel, Loria, et al.Obesity and overweight rates in Europe are increasing as the years pass and is a serious public health concern, at the range of 7. 6% to 24. 7% as reported by the Statistical Office of European Union (2011). A major factor for this obesity is the increase in dietary energy intake from beverages. Energy intake among European adolescents is on average 1455 ml/day, mostly consumed from sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juice, and sweetened milk (Duffey et al. , 2011). Calories consumed in liquid for have weak satiety properties and cause poor energy compensation compared with calories from solid food (Chen et al. 2009). Having explained that, it is safe to say that the reduction in liquid calorie intake may lead to weight loss, which leads to the purpose of this study; to ex amine how changes in the beverages consumption affect weight change among adolescents: * How changes in liquid calorie intake affects the body weight * How changes in consumption of specific beverages affect body weight * The effect of both in terms of time—6 months and 18 months This study is in Europe, more particularly in Switzerland and the sample population is adolescents.We are going to use the same sample size of 224 adolescents that are overweight or obese and that consume sugar-sweetened beverages, juices, or any form of energy intake in the form of liquids on a daily basis. Just like the previous study, there will be a written informed consent provided by the parents and a written assent provided by the participants. The intervention includes participants to be involved in groups where they receive information and behavioral counseling; information and advice on the impact of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on body weight.Each individual receives two 30 min che ck-in sessions every month as well as group meetings every other week, in addition to the original monthly telephone call with the parents. In this study the control would be the baseline, as everyone is part of the intervention, and all participants would be studied closely in order to see the effects of decreased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages as time passes. Data collection is done in three parts: at baseline, at 6 months, and at 18 months.To begin, a questionnaire would be filled in order to get the baseline characteristics of each individual, followed by an interview via telephone to provide the â€Å"unannounced† 24 hour dietary intake (including portion size and exercise). This was done every time new results had to be measured, meaning at baseline, 6 months, and 18 months. The hypotheses formulated for the study: Hypothesis 1: changes in consumption of liquid calories will cause a reduction in weight; only when liquid calorie is decreased.Hypothesis 2: chang es in consumption of individual types of beverages will cause a reduction in weight. Hypothesis 3: Weight reduction in terms of any decrease of sugar-sweetened beverages will be greater in 6 months, compared to 18 months. The design presented: Independent variable (what we manipulate): Liquid calories Types of beverages Dependent variable (what we measure): Weight change Design 1 | Body Weight:| Liquid Calories: | 6 months | 18 months | No change | No change | No change| Increase on 100 kcal| Increase | Increase |Decrease of 100 kcal| Decrease (0. 3kg)| Decrease (0. 2kg)| Design 2 | Body Weight| Beverage Category:| 6 months | 18 months| Decreased by one serving | Sugar-Sweetened| Decrease (0. 5kg)| Decrease (0. 7kg)| Diet Drinks| No effect| No effect | 100% Juice| No effect | No effect| Other (milk, coffee,.. )| Decrease (0. 1kg)| Decrease (0. 2kg)| The measures for this study: * Demographics: sex, race, date of birth, ethnic group, parents level of education, and total annual house hold income. * Physical activity: in collaboration with the persons metabolic equivalence.Evaluated in the questionnaire, as a recall of the previous 7 day activity. * Dietary intake: includes portion size 1) beverages per servings per day 2) energy intake per calorie per day: a-sugar-sweetened beverages, b- juices, c- diet drinks. Received through â€Å"unannounced† telephone calls 24 hour dietary intake. * Beverages divided into categories: a- sugar-sweetened, b- diet drinks, c- 100% juice, d- other: includes milk, coffee, tea, †¦ * Weight and height: in kilograms and centimeters – these are used to compute the BMI.Results: The results do show that the change in liquid calorie intake does affect body weight and that a decreased in beverage type will also cause body weight to decrease, however, this is explained in more detail. In terms of hypothesis 1- a decrease in liquid calorie did cause a decrease in body weight. Results have shown that a reduction of 100 kc al was associated with a decrease of 0. 3 kg at 6 months and a 0. 2 kg at 18 months (Chen et al. , 2009).In terms of hypothesis 2- there was a relationship with beverage type and body loss, however, not with all the beverage types; with some there was no correlation. When tested, a reduction of one serving of sugar-sweetened beverage was significantly associated with weight loss at both 6 months and 18 months. Diet drinks, 100% juice were inversely associated with weight loss, but this was not statistically significant, leading to not effect in weight loss; a decrease of one serving of the other beverages did show a slight decrease in weight loss along both time periods (Chen et al. 2009). In terms of hypothesis 3- weight reduction will be greater at 6 months, compared to 8 months, showed no significance; the opposite occurred. Compared to baseline, as stated in hypothesis 1, the weight loss was greater at 18 months, also proven at a reduction in sugar-sweetened beverages by one ser ving was associated with a 0. 5kg weight loss at 6 months and a 0. 7kg weight loss at 18 months (Chen et al. , 2009). Meaning at 18 months people lost more weight than at 6 months. Discussion/ Commentaries: From the proposed study, findings have suggested that a reduction in liquid alorie intake was significant with weight loss in both 6 months and 18 months, and that the reduction of sugar-sweetened beverages was also associated with weight loss in these periods of time. The original study by Ebbeling et al. , (2012) was an intervention to reduce the number of sweet-sugar beverages consumed and instead consume the unsweetened beverages or non-caloric beverages. This was studied without advising the participants on the effects of these beverages on the body and overall weight, just by observation and calculation of BMI.Although the results were aimed at checking the weight gain in two years between a control group and an experimental group, their focus was on the result of the BMI w hich is a measure relative to weight and height: people had an increased BMI as they were growing taller and gained more mass. In this proposed study however, the intervention is focusing on the opposite outcome, the weight loss with time of using less sugar-sweetened beverages, the measure here was the overall weight difference caused by these beverages, shown in kg. It also includes counseling, advice, and information on the effect of these beverages on the body.Overall, this is mainly planned so that people could accept this behavior change; and because this is done on obese and overweight participants, the behavior of reducing the intake of these sugar-sweetened beverages is one that should be continued – when participants see a change in the overall weight loss (in which the study has proven to be supported), they would be more motivated to carry on this behavior. It is merely a way of tackling the same issue but in a different way with a stronger intervention – m ore information given to participants.Aside research has shown that the link between sugar-sweetened beverages and body weight is related to the high fructose content in these beverages. On the long-term this can promote fat storage and excessive food intake through an increase and change in the hormonal patterns that are related to this issue –called the â€Å"postpantrial hormone patterns† (Chen et al. , 2009). This is probably why in hypothesis 2, the other types of beverages did not have an effect on weight change, as they do not have the same amount of fructose.The different nutritional components of each beverage type has a different effect on the body, some aiding in the process of losing weight and others adding difficulties, while some have no effect. Another point that is interesting to point out is that earlier, the term liquid calories was used, this is to state the specific energy intake, as there are two kinds of energy intake- the liquid and the solid fo rm; this study is focusing on the liquid calorie intake of most prominent beverages. Strengths and Limitations:Some strengths of this study is the duration of the study, it was long enough to test if there is a significant difference in the change of consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, also the ability to evaluate a variety of beverages and knowing the effects of each on the body, as this might affect the overall effect. Another strength would be the responsiveness and excellent participation rate on the group meetings, the individual session, and the availability of information about the 24 hour dietary recall to measure dietary intake.Some might argue that the â€Å"unannounced† 24 hour dietary intake may be a little bit faulty, that the dietary intake should be written on a daily or weekly basis in order to evaluate it better; not just done at baseline, 6 months and 18 months. Although this point may seem like a limitation, the study sees it as a strength as the inte rvention is focusing on the liquid calorie, with the behavioral counseling and advice on increasing or decreasing liquid calories is pretty clear that there is a tight control and a trust that the participants are following what is being told.Some limitations of this proposed study would be the lack of follow up, the study was aimed at 18 months with the manipulation of calorie intake from different kinds of beverages along with counseling, there was no follow up to see if people maintained the lower calorie intake or not. Another limitation would be the lack of provision of these diet beverages or fruit juices in schools, we have not controlled what and where participants should obtain these beverages, we have just instructed them to do reduce the liquid calorie intake.The study has used a rather small sample size in order to have more control and focus on all the results yielded; there is no doubt that the results would be different, however, it is always better to pick a larger s ample size as we are referring to the country as a whole. What we learned: What we learn from this study is that the reduction in liquid calorie intake is associated with weight loss, specially in the reduction of sugar-sweetened beverages.In this study, while focusing on the weight in kg, the result change in overall body fat was clear; the overall change in weight because of liquid calorie reduction is not a large amount, however; it does prove that it has an effect on weight gain or weight loss. Moreover, the study supports policy recommendations and public health efforts to reduce intakes of liquid calories, specially the reduction in sugar-sweetened beverages (Chen et al. , 2009).A number of factors were assumed , however, more prospective studies with accurate measures of exposures and outcomes in terms of body composition are needed to provide more robust evidence on which to base interventions to achieve long-term behavioral change and prevent excess weight gains in adolesce nts (Rennie, Johnson, & Jebb, 2005). References Chen, L. , Appel, L. J. , Loria, C. , Lin, P. H. , Champagne, C. M. , Elmer, P. J. , †¦ Caballero, B. (2009). Reduction in Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages is Associated with Weight Loss: the PREMIER Trial. American Society for Nutrition 89:1299-306. Retrieved from http://ajcn. utrition. org/content/89/5/1299. full. pdf+html. Christian Nordqvist. (2011). European Adult Obesity Rates Range From 7. 6% To 24. 7%. Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/articles/ 238283. php. Ebbeling, C. B. , et al. (2012). A Randomized Trial of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Adolescent Body Weight. New England Journal of Medicine, 367:15, Oct. 11, 2012, 1407-1416. Intervention. (2007). In Medical Dictionary online. Retrieved from http://medicaldictionary. thefree dictionary. com/intervention. Duffey, K. J. , Huybrechts, I. , Mouratidou, T. , Libuda, L. , Kersing, M. , De Vriendt, †¦ Popkin, B. M. 2011). Bever age Consumption Among European Adolescents in the HELENA Study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 66(2):244-52. doi: 10. 1038/ejcn. 2011. 166. Epub 2011 Sep 28. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/21952695 Rennie, K. L. , Johnson, L. , Jebb, S. A. (2005). Behavioural Determinants of Obesity. MRC Human Nutrition Research, 19(3):343-58. Just in case: http://ajcn. nutrition. org/content/87/6/1662. short http://pediatrics. aappublications. org/content/123/4/e661. abstract (used as a limitation cy my intervention did not include a policy inclusion in order to deal with the issue) http://ajcn. nutrition. org/content/84/2/274. full

Muhammad Ali Becomes World Heavyweight Champion

On February 25, 1964, underdog Cassius Clay, better known as  Muhammad Ali, fought defending champion Charles Sonny Liston for the world heavyweight title in Miami Beach, Florida. Although it was nearly unanimously believed that Clay would be knocked out by round two if not earlier, it was Liston who lost the fight after refusing at the beginning of round seven to continue fighting.  This fight was one of the largest upsets in sports history, setting Cassius Clay on a long path of fame and controversy. Who Was Muhammad Ali? Cassius Clay, renamed Muhammad Ali right after this historic fight, had started boxing at the age of 12 and by 18 had won the light-heavyweight gold medal at the 1960 Olympic Games.   Clay trained long and hard to be the best at boxing, but many at the time thought his fast feet and hands didnt have enough power in them to beat a true heavyweight champion like Liston.   Plus, the 22-year-old Clay, a decade younger than Liston, seemed a bit crazy. Clay, known as the Louisville Lip, was constantly boasting that he would knock out Liston and calling him the big, ugly bear, riling up both Liston and the press into a frenzy over his wild taunts. While Clay used these tactics to unsteady his opponents and to garner publicity for himself, others thought it was a sign that he was afraid or just plain crazy. Who Was Sonny Liston? Sonny Liston, known as the Bear for his giant size, had been the world heavyweight champion since 1962. He was rough, tough, and hit really, really hard. Having been arrested more than 20 times, Liston learned to box while in prison, becoming a professional boxer in 1953. Listons criminal background played a big role in his unlikable public personae, but his hard-hitting style earned him enough wins via knockout that he was not to be ignored.   For most folks in 1964, it seemed a no brainer that Liston, who had just knocked out the last serious contender for the title in the first round, would pummel this young, loud-mouthed challenger. People were betting 1 to 8 on the match, favoring Liston. The World Heavyweight Fight At the start of the fight on February 25, 1964, at the Miami Beach Convention Center, Liston was overconfident. Although nursing an injured shoulder, he expected an early knockout like his last three big fights and so had not spent much time training. Cassius Clay, on the other hand, had trained hard and was thoroughly ready. Clay was faster than most other boxers and his plan was to dance around the powerful Liston until Liston tired out. Alis plan worked. Liston, weighing in at the slightly heavy 218 pounds, was surprisingly dwarfed by the 210 1/2-pound Clay. When the bout began, Clay bounced, danced, and bobbed frequently, confusing Liston and making a very difficult target. Liston tried to get a solid punch in, but round one ended without much actual hitting. Round two ended with a cut under Listons eye and Clay not only still standing, but holding his own.  Round three and four saw both men looking tired but determined. At the end of the fourth round, Clay complained that his eyes were hurting. Wiping them with a wet rag helped a little, but Clay basically spent the entire fifth round trying to evade the blurry Liston. Liston tried to use this to his advantage and went on the attack, but the lithe Clay surprisingly managed to stay up the whole round. By the sixth round, Liston was exhausted and Clays eyesight was returning. Clay was a dominant force in the sixth round, getting in several good combinations. When the bell rang for the start of the seventh round, Liston stayed seated. He had hurt his shoulder and was worried about the cut under his eye. He just didnt want to continue the fight. It was a real shock that Liston ended the fight while still seated in the corner. Excited, Clay did a little dance, now called the Ali shuffle, in the middle of the ring. Cassius Clay was declared the winner and became the heavyweight boxing champion of the world.